投资条约往往对“投资”作宽泛的定义。在相当一部分投资条约中,合同权利可以构成合资格的投资,从而成为条约保护的对象。[1]但是具体的保护方式仍不明确。典型的投资合同由东道国和投资者签订,东道国违反合同时,首先可能触发合同上的责任。这种责任通常需依照合同的适用法加以判定。然而,违反合同并不必然违反投资条约从而导致国际法上的责任。从国内法与国际法二元论的角度看,违反合同的责任与违反条约的责任并行不悖。[2] Vivendi v Argentina案是较早涉及基于合同的主张和基于条约的主张之区别的案例。该案的撤销委员会认为,如投资者提起基于条约的主张,合同中的排他性管辖条款不能阻却投资仲裁庭适用条约中的保护标准[3],亦无法排除对东道国行为构成国际不法行为的认定。[4] 撤销委员会因此质疑仲裁庭将条约与合同混为一谈:
“…[I]t is clear from the core discussion of the Tucumán claims, at paragraphs 77-81 of the Award, that the Tribunal declined to decide key aspects of the Claimants’ BIT claims on the ground that they involved issues of contractual performance or non-performance. The Tribunal itself characterised these passages, in paragraph 81, as embodying its “decision” with respect to the Tucumán claims.”[5]
“A State may breach a treaty without breaching a contract, and vice versa”.[6]
然而,即便条约和合同存在严格的区分,两者并非绝对割裂。投资者基于条约提起投资仲裁时并不能完全无视合同。本文试图初探合同在条约之诉(treaty claim)的作用。本文的讨论主要基于两个投资仲裁案件:Vigtop v Hungary[7]和Alpha v Ukraine[8].
01
Vigtop v Hungary: 认可合同在条约之诉中的重要作用
该案涉及度假村项目投资。匈牙利政府就某一赌场的特许经营进行公开招标。申请人投资的公司KC Bidding成功中标,[9] 并与匈牙利政府签订为期二十年的特许经营合同。[10] 合同第9.3条约定KC Bidding应在特许经营期限内始终合法拥有用于建设的地块(continuously hold the legitimate right to possession of the real properties for establishment of the Casino)。[11] 如 KC Bidding未能做到这一点,则根据合同第15.2.1条,政府有权解除特许经营协议。[12]
签约前,双方计划将项目设在Sukoró的相关地块(“Sukoró地块”)。[13] 该地块由匈牙利政府所有,并由国有控股公司MNV管理。[14] 由于匈牙利法律对国有地块的直接转让施加了严格的限制,双方决定通过土地置换的方式使得投资者获得Sukoró地块的所有权并签订了置换协议。[15] 后因土地登记方面的限制,双方对Sukoró地块采用部分置换、部分租用的方式进行处理。[16] 双方之间存在置换协议和租赁协议两个合同。
土地置换协议签订不久,迫于公众压力,政府决定对土地置换的正当性和估值的合理性开展调查。根据匈牙利国家审计署(State Audit Office)出具的报告,土地置换协议因缺少法律所规定的公共利益目的而无效。[17]
其后政府决定单方终止特许经营合同,其主要理由为KC Bidding违反了合同第9.3条,仅获得了Sukoró地块的承租权,而非所有权,故为执行特许经营协议设立的项目公司亦无法通过KC Bidding获得地块的所有权。[18] 政府随之提起合同之诉,要求投资者承担合同约定的赔偿。[19] 与此同时,投资者对政府提起诉讼,要求法院宣告政府的单方解除行为违法。[20]
在ICSID仲裁程序中,投资者主张政府的行为构成塞浦路斯—匈牙利双边投资协定第4条下的征收。投资者指控了一系列的政府行为,可大致概述为政府阻止项目公司获得Sukoró地块,并阻碍项目公司寻找其它替代项目地块。[21] 政府的立场之一为,其作为特许经营合同的当事方,依据合同享有解除权,因而案件不构成征收。[22] 具体而言,政府认为投资者无法获得案涉地块的合法所有权。[23]
仲裁庭认为,从法律原则上看,终止合同行为可以落入构成征收行为的范畴。[24] 仲裁庭认为构成征收必须首先有政府行为,不仅仅是合同行为。[25] 该案中,仲裁庭认为政府的行为系合同行为,而非主权行为:
“It has to be noted that the Concession Contract was not terminated by way of legislative act or executive decree, but rather by Respondent’s exercise of negotiated contractual termination rights, on the grounds that Claimant allegedly failed to comply with its contractual obligations. In the Termination Letter, Respondent did not purport to invoke any of its sovereign prerogatives. On its face, Respondent’s termination notice would therefore appear to be the act of an ordinary contracting party rather than the act of a sovereign State.”[26]
当然,仲裁庭从双方提交的先例中注意到合同行为并不当然排除征收行为。[27] 仲裁庭在判断征收时需考虑合同的订立、履行和终止情况。[28]
一个更具体的问题是,如果政府的解约行为有合同依据,这是否必然排除征收行为。仲裁庭认为,构成征收首先要有主权行为。[29] 其次,解除合同是否有合同依据应当纳入考量。[30] 仲裁庭考量了一些先前案例后,认为解除是否有合同依据与是否构成征收无必然联系,前者既非充分、也非必要条件。[31]
仲裁庭采取三步走的判断方法。第一,政府终止合同是否构成主权行为。[32] 判断是否构成主权行为主要考察终止行为背后有没有公共政策目的。如果仲裁庭认为存在公共政策目的,则进入第二步分析。第二,终止行为是否存在合同项下的依据。[33] 如果政府援引的合同项下的理由可以成立,则进入第三步分析。第三,仲裁庭将考察政府解除合同的行为是否具有正当性(legitimacy),也即是否有违诚信原则(good faith principle)。[34] 具体而言,仲裁庭要考虑的是政府是否滥用合同权利规避征收的赔偿责任(“whether the termination constituted an abuse of contractual right in order to avoid liability to compensate, that is, whether it involved a ‘fictitious’ or ‘malicious’ exercise of the right to terminate”)。[35] 如果仲裁庭认为政府解约具有正当性,则政府行为不构成征收。仲裁庭在衡量政府是否善意时,作出的如下阐释:
“While Claimant argues that a Project of this magnitude could hardly be successful without governmental support, it must be observed that the Concession Contract did not provide for any form of support by the Government…In contracting with a State, there is an inherent risk that successive governments will change their policy. Had Claimant wished to ensure governmental support, it could have negotiated and incorporated specific contractual obligations to this effect in the Concession Contract. In the Tribunal’s view, having failed to do so, Claimant may not now invoke the principle of good faith to create new and specific obligations on behalf of the Government.”[36]
“What Claimant had a right to expect was that the Government, having signed the Concession Contract, would perform it in good faith and cooperate with Claimant in accordance with the Concession Contract. But this Hungarian law obligation did not require the Government to forego its contractually-agreed right to terminate the Concession Contract when it was factually and legally supported, especially when the specific risk at issue was contractually allocated to Claimant by the inclusion of 132 alternative sites.”[37]
该案中,Sukoró地块是否可以满足特许经营合同的要求自始具有不确定性。合同中规定了132个潜在的替代地块印证了这一点。显然,仲裁庭并不认为政府有积极的义务帮助投资者寻找替代性地块,毕竟合同将这一义务分配给了投资者。由此,合同条款在判断政府是否善意时具有重要作用:如果某一义务不在合同之中,投资者将较难主张政府的某一行为(或不作为)有违善意。仲裁庭将责任置于投资者一方:政府的政策变动是一种固有的风险,如投资者希望制止这种变动,应当努力将有关要求写入合同条款。在该案中,仲裁庭认为政府没有恶意解除合同,并驳回了投资者关于征收的仲裁请求。
02
Alpha v Ukraine:合同在条约之诉中处于边缘地位
该案涉及酒店装修合同。九十年代,国营酒店Dnipro(“酒店”)面临经济危机,年久失修。奥地利公司Alpha与酒店签订了一系列合同(Joint Activities Agreements, JAAs),出资对酒店进行翻新,之后由双方进行联合经营(joint operation)。合同约定酒店经营产生的利润将按比例分配,但Alpha每月可获得的利润在任何情况下不得低于某一固定的金额。每月向Alpha支付固定费用,以使其收回出资并获取利润。这些合同提及“joint activities”为标题。[38] 与案件直接相关的是1998年JAA和1999年JAA。
2001年,乌克兰修改对国有资产的政策,政府部门要求Dnipro酒店进行公司制改造(corporatization),成为Open Joint Stock Company Dnipro Hotel (“OJSC Hotel”)。[39] OJSC Hotel与Alpha达成补充协议,确认OJSC Hotel成为原Dnipro酒店的继承者以及每月向Alpha支付50,000美元的最低付款义务,并将1999年JAA的期限由2006年至2015年。[40]
2004年6月之后,OJSC Hotel停止了每月付款。[41] 停止付款的具体原因不明,但与乌克兰新政府的立场变化有关。2006年8月21日和2007年11月5日,基辅地方副检察官代表政府先后在法院提起诉讼,主张1988年JAA和1999年JAA无效。[42] 2006年9月14日,Alpha在基辅法院提起诉讼,主张OJSC Hotel违反1998和1999年JAA。[43]
仲裁庭认为,本案中的征收行为是政府的直接行为,而非基于行为归因确定的行为。乌克兰政府与OJSC对每月最低付款的态度不同,政府反对这一付款,但酒店对此予以认可。[44] 仲裁庭基于证据认为,乌克兰政府指示酒店停止付款,[45] 直接由政府承担责任:
“In light of the Tribunal’s finding that the Ukrainian government was directly responsible for the cessation of payments, questions regarding Ukraine’s responsibility under international law are greatly simplified.”[46]
“[I]t was Ukraine’s conduct that interfered with the contracts and caused the Hotel to breach the contracts outside proper channels, and it is that conduct that is unquestionably State conduct and that implicates Ukraine’s international responsibility.”[47]
在此基础上,仲裁庭认为停止付款基于商业原因还是政策原因与归因无关。[48] 政府不是合同的当事方,酒店也并非政府的机关。酒店违反了合同,但政府干预了合同,并促使酒店违反了合同。[49] 仲裁庭将政府的违法行为描述为促使商业主体违反后者的合同义务(causing a commercial entity to breach that entity’s contractual obligations)[50](para.412)这与Vigotop v Hungary明显不同,在该案中,政府的违约行为触发了投资条约下的义务。
2.1. 征收
申请人主张停止付款构成对其作出的投资的征收。从奥地利—乌克兰双边投资协定(“UABIT”)第1(4)条的措辞来看,构成征收的行为非常广泛,包括“any other measure taken by one Contracting Party having equivalent effects with respect to investments of an investor of the other Contracting Party.”这一宽泛的表述对申请人十分有利。申请人主张其被剥夺了“参与共同经营活动的权利和获取收益的权利。”[51]
仲裁庭判断申请人已经丧失合同项下剩余的经济价值,因为酒店已多年未付款,且没有迹象表明政府将允许酒店继续付款,因此征收主张成立。[52] 仲裁庭对合同本身并未多加考虑,仲裁庭认为主权行为和商业行为(即合同行为)的区分与本案中政府的行为是否构成征收无关。[53]
2.2. 公平公正待遇
除征收之外,申请人还主张政府违反了公平公正待遇。该主张的焦点在于合理期待问题。仲裁庭认为,申请人对合同于2015年到期后的双方仍继续合作没有合理期待。[54] 毕竟合同明确约定于2015年终止。[55] 但仲裁庭认为申请人有政府不会干预申请人与酒店之间合同以及这些合同将得到履行的期待。[56]关键是这些期待的来源为何:
“Those expectations arose not only by the terms of the original agreements, but, for example, also by the terms of the amendments to those agreements negotiated during or after the corporatization, and the assurances given by the new management of the Hotel in June 2004 that the relationship would continue.”[57]
仲裁庭认为,申请人享有的合理期待的来源至少包括合同,政府的行为已经阻却了申请人的合理期待,因而违反了公平公正待遇。
03
简评
Vigtop v Hungary和Alpha v Ukraine体现了在条约之诉中,仲裁庭对待合同的不同态度。Vigtop v Hungary中仲裁庭在判断征收请求时,始终围绕案涉特许经营合同展开分析,充分认可合同条款对征收之诉的潜在阻却作用。相反,Alpha v Ukraine案的仲裁庭在征收问题上并未考虑合同的问题(尽管被申请人曾主张案件应通过合同项下的争议解决方式进行解决),仅在公平公正待遇项下考虑了案涉合同在创设合理预期中的作用。合同对双方当事人的权利义务及风险分配作出了安排,在多大程度上条约之诉应当考虑这种安排仍需进一步探讨。
注释:
[1] 参见Rudolf Dolzer, Ursula Kriebaum & Christoph Schreuer, Principles of International Investment Law (3rd edn.), Oxford University Press (2021), p.148.
[2] Compañiá de Aguas del Aconquija S.A. and Vivendi Universal S.A. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Decision on Annulment, 3 July 2002, para.96.
[3] Ibid, para.101.
[4] Ibid, para.103.
[5] Ibid, para.108.
[6] Compañia de Aguas del Aconquija S.A. and Vivendi Universal S.A. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No.
ARB/97/3, Decision on Annulment (3 July 2002), Exhibit CLA-106, para.95.
[7] Vigtop v Hungary, ICSID Case No.ARB/11/22, Award, 1 October 2014.
[8] Alpha v Ukraine, ICSID Case No.ARB/07/16, Award, 8 November 2010.
[9] Vigtop v Hungary, ICSID Case No.ARB/11/22, Award, 1 October 2014, paras123-127.
[10] Ibid, para.141.
[11] Ibid, para.147.
[12] Ibid, para.153. Clause 15.2.1 : “The Concession Grantor shall be entitled to terminate the Contract with an immediate effect, if: 15.2.1.1 the Concession Receiver fails to certify by January 1, 2011 that the Concession Company has legitimate possession of the real properties as in item 9.3 and the right of encroachment of the necessary superstructures for the period stipulated therein, or after certifying, the right of the Concession Receiver for continuous legitimate possession of the real properties pursuant to item 9.3 and its right of encroachment of the necessary superstructures are terminated at any time.”
[13] Ibid, para.92.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid, para.93.
[16] Ibid, paras.103-104.
[17] Ibid, para.122.
[18] Ibid, para.193.
[19] Ibid, para.199.
[20] Ibid, para.200.
[21] Ibid, para.204.
[22] Ibid, paras.223-224.
[23] Ibid, para.225.
[24] Ibid, para.279. “There is no doubt that the termination of the Concession Contract resulted in a substantial devaluation of Claimant’s shareholdings in KC Bidding by depriving KC Bidding of its main asset, i.e., its rights under the Concession Contract.”
[25] Ibid, para.280.
[26] Ibid, para.312.
[27] Ibid, para.313.
[28] Ibid, para.313.
[29] Ibid, para.317.
[30] Ibid, para.319.
[31] Ibid, para.327.
[32] Ibid, para.328.
[33] Ibid, para.329.
[34] Ibid, para.330.
[35] Ibid, para.330.
[36] Ibid, para.625.
[37] Ibid, para.626.
[38] Alpha v Ukraine, ICSID Case No.ARB/07/16, Award, 8 November 2010, para.81.
[39] Ibid, para.101.
[40] Ibid, para.113.
[41] Ibid, para.125.
[42] Ibid, para.145.
[43] Ibid, para.146.
[44] Ibid, para.374.
[45] Ibid, para.388.
[46] Ibid, para.399.
[47] Ibid, para.403.
[48] Ibid, para.402.
[49] Ibid, para.403.
[50] Ibid, para.412.
[51] Para.406.
[52] Paras.409-410.
[53] Para.412.
[54] Para.421.
[55] Para.421.
[56] Para.422.
[57] Para.422.
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